Stefik defines the edge — today’s world — as the place where society and technology are co-evolving to create a new order. As a principal scientist at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center in Palo Alto, Calif., Stefik certainly has the cred to offer an opinion on how to maneuver in such an area. Chaos at the Internet edge is seen as less a technological problem than as a symptom of society grappling with change. Particularly, Stefik says, with issues like censorship, online privacy, digital copyright, and untaxed ecommerce.

The turbulence hits when momentum for change clashes with the social need for stability.

The book aims to provide a kind of road map for this network chaos. Though laudable in its scope, Stefik never ties it all together. He obviously knows his way around the silicon world, but when he tries to direct us through the societal aspects, his logic lags. Unnecessary and incomplete detours are constant, ranging from population genetics to the virtues of paper. In the future, Stefik would do well to partner with someone who can speak to the society stuff, while he handles the tech.

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Both VR machines utilize an interactive CD ROM system to create a computer-generated virtual environment, much like playing an exercise video game. The user of the VR stepper “flies” a World War II biplane equipped with water cannons, and attempts to shoot down hot air balloons and destroy sites to earn points. The faster the stepping rate, the faster the plane goes and the more points the user can accumulate.

The VR recumbent cycle provides the user with a multitude of different scenarios. Some options include cycling through the Swiss Alps (complete with ski jump), traversing a Caribbean island (complete with island music and tropics birds) and participating in a simulated race against computer-generated competitors. With a built-in fan, the faster the user pedals, the harder the “wind” blows. The seat also tilts and tips as the user rounds corners, and a gear-shifting mechanism is built into the handlebars.

Each study looked at a separate group of 18 apparently healthy people between 20 and 50 years of age with no previous experience with virtual reality machines (Tables 1 and 2). After three to five practice sessions, subjects completed a 30-minute exercise bout on each machine, in random order. For example, in the stepping study, subjects completed one bout on the VR stepper and another bout on an identical stepper not equipped with VR technology. Each bout was conducted at a self-selected pace; the user was free to choose any workload setting they desired, and could change the workload at any time. The machine consoles were covered so that no visual feedback regarding workload level or time was provided. Throughout each exercise bout, heart rates were monitored with a Polar heart rate watch, oxygen consumption and caloric expenditure were measured using a computerized metabolic can, and ratings of perceived exertion were assessed using the Borg 6-20 scale.

In both studies, heart rates were 5 to 10 beats per minute higher (Figure 1), and oxygen consumption values were 10 to 14 percent higher (Figure 2) on the VR machines compared to the non-VR machines.

Caloric expenditure values for the 30-minute exercise sessions were 40 to 70 kcals higher on the VR versus non-VR machines (Figure 3). And, despite the higher heart rates and energy cost values, subjects worked at the same perceived effort on both types of equipment (Figure 4).

In fact, the largest club companies have been opening up more new facilities than acquiring existing ones.

This is partly due to available landlord or developer financial inducements, attractive rents, available debt.

The focus on a defined physical footprint, and a tendency to create similar facilities with company names.

If a club is acquired, the challenges include less than ideal locations and physical plants, incompatible pricing or membership concepts, inexperienced or unqualified staff and, sometimes, a tarnished image.

[N]o evidence exists that human consciousness is connected in any way to an all-pervading cosmic fluid, through electromagnetic aural waves or quantum mechanical particle waves. To the best of our knowledge, the universe is composed of discrete chunks of matter that interact locally…

[T]he classical gravitational and electromagnetic fields of nineteenth-century physics have become the mathematical tools for describing particle interactions in the twentieth. They have no reality other than mathematical, though in physics classes they are normally presented as real entities–contributing greatly to the confusion that is exploited by paranormalists…

Alternative healthcare represents an attempt to de-secularize medicine and sanitize religion.

A Religious Undertow
Most opponents of quackery critique alternative methods in terms of science, the law, and politics. This is well and good. Typically, however, they are publicly reticent about picking apart the religious undercurrent that fuels the alternative medicine movement. Critics who are religious generally either play down this undercurrent or review it from a standpoint involving denominational beliefs. For example, in Can You Trust Your Doctor? The Complete Guide to New Age Medicine and Its Threat to Your Family (1991), fundamentalist Christians John F. Ankerberg and John F. Weldon, M.Div., Ph.D., D.Min., describe acupuncture as an invitation to “spiritistic operations,” applied kinesiology as adaptable to “occultic purposes,” crystal healing as an “energy therapy” whose power source is the “spirit world,” and homeopathy as the modem harbinger of “new age healing” whose occasional effectiveness may be due to “spiritistic power.” On the other hand, critics who are atheists or agnostics are disinclined to risk alienating current and potential antiquackery allies. Moreover, ethnic identification can narrow anyone’s criticisms.

Apparently, many health professionals treat rationalism and religious unbelief as mere personal options rather than as integral to the scientific perspective. On May 19, 1994, 1 gave a presentation tided “Alternative Healthcare and Supernaturalism” at a Purdue University conference on “nutrition fraud.” To say the least I was not a hit. For example, one evaluation form respondent expressed a lack of appreciation for the setting forth of a “personal belief system.” Another respondent said I should have my “[down arrow]” my “theological beliefs.” Another, a self-proclaimed Christian, evidently found my “philosophy somewhat offensive.” If a speaker at such a conference verbalized accord with, say, secular humanism or communism, it would be justifiable to charge him with promoting a personal belief system. But rationalism and religious unbelief are not mere matters of opinion. Moreover, they are contrary to theology, which is always and only a matter of opinion. It is no wonder that even health professionals who are staunchly rational skeptics beat around the burning bush of medical supernaturalism. Attacking it head-on threatens neighboring religious beliefs and upsets those who have internalized them. But, having studied alternative healthcare up close since 1989, I suspect that to overlook or downgrade its religious undercurrent is a disservice to the public. Furthermore, I consider the term “religious skeptic” an oxymoron. Science follows sound evidence. Religion accommodates experiential evidence and accepts, rejects, or warps all manner of evidence according to preconceived notions. This is the essence of pseudoscience.

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Mind/body interactionism: Mind and body are disparate entities that affect each other.

Monotheism: There is a perfect, eternal, almighty, omniscient, benevolent being who created and rules the universe, i.e., God.

Mysticism: All conclusions, beliefs, and opinions based on analysis, deduction, and/or common experience are illusory. True knowledge is attainable only through contemplative or intuitive union (or near-union) with God, a “higher reality,” or the universe, but such knowledge is indescribable.
Pantheism: “God” and “nature” are synonymous. [Pantheism, which has an affinity with Eastern mysticism, is both naturalistic and trivial unless the believer ascribes supernatural phenomena or a morality to "nature." Unnecessary capitalization of the word "nature" usually indicates supernaturalistic pantheism.]

Vitalism: An invisible, intangible, unique form of energy is responsible for all the activities of a living organism and [according to some vitalists] can exist independently of the organism. [There are more than forty synonyms for "life force," ranging from the generic (e.g., elan vital) to the sectarian (e.g., chi, orgone, prana, and soul) and the obscure (e.g., entelechy and essence).]

The lure of mysticism lies in the desire to validate subjective experience. The appeal of pantheism lies in the yearning for connectedness and in the desire to legitimize traditional beliefs, which many people misconstrue as “natural laws.” The appeal of vitalism — the supreme sticking point between scientific medicine and alternative healthcare — lies in its compatibility with humankind’s longing for immortality. Self-confidence belongingness, and supernormality are potent, highly salable wishes.

Ayurvedists, occultists, other paranormalists, and dimestore metaphysicians make much of consciousness and fields of “energy.” For example, Sri Swami Rama, founder and “spiritual head” of the Himalayan International Institute of Yoga Science and Philosophy, promotes the theory of the koshas (literally, “sheaths”) as “a complete model of a human being.” According to an ancient Hindu treatise, the koshas surround the atman (soul, or “true self” of living humans. Supposedly, the atman is identical with Brahman, an ineffable, eternal, omnipresent, absolute being. Union with Brahman–i.e., personal extinction–is the supreme goal of Hinduism. The koshas include: (1) the physical or material sheath (human body; also called the food sheath), which is the outermost covering; (2) the vital or “pranic” sheath, which animates the body; (3) the mental sheath, which receives sensory impressions; (4) the intelligence sheath, the seat of discrimination and volition; and (5) the sheath of bliss, the innermost and subtlest covering–a “pool of boundless joy,” according to the Himalayan Institute. Besides the koshas, the “subtle anatomy” of Ayurveda includes: (1) nadis, “canals” (srotas) that carry prana (“cosmic energy”) throughout the body; (2) chakras, “centers of consciousness” that connect body and soul; and (3) 107 marmas, which are somewhat like acupuncture points.

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There is a certain law of periodicity, according to which forms disappear and the truths which they contained reappear… embodied in new forms. Seasons go and come, civilizations pass away and grow again, exhibiting the same characteristics possessed by the former, sciences are lost and rediscovered, and the science of medicine forms no exception to this general rule. Many valuable treasures of the past have been buried in forgetfulness; many ideas that shone like luminous stars in the sky of ancient medicine have disappeared during the revolution of thought, and begin to rise again on the mental horizon, where they are christened with new names and stared at in surprise as something supposed never to have existed before.

Consider just a few forms of born-again “medicine” and their postulates: acupuncture (chi and a network of invisible “channels”), Ayurveda (prana), homeopathy (“vital force”), macrobiotics (yin and yang), naturopathy (“life force”), shiatsu (ki), Transcendental Meditation (“cosmic consciousness”), and past-life therapy (reincarnation).

“Body-Mind-Spiritism”
The keystone of alternative healthcare is a notion for which I have coined the term “body-mind-spiritism.” This refers to a supposed semiautonomy of body and mind, or of body, mind, and spirit. Proponents tend to blur the distinction between mind and spirit (soul). Yet an understanding of this distinction is crucial to the unraveling of many alternative approaches. The word “mind” refers basically to sequences of thoughts and sensations, a process that occurs continuously until death. The mind is not a material thing, but a concept representing the cascade of multitudinous physiological events that amount to thinking. Thinking is a “two-faced” activity: subjective and psychological at the macro-level, objective and physiological at the micro-level. Psychological terms such as “apathy,” “depression,” “fear,” “neurosis,” and “obsession” describe only the macro-level of thinking. All thoughts and feelings arise from physiological processes that occur in the central nervous system, especially the brain. The mind is a macro-level (large-scale or global) property of the brain. The mind, the brain, and the nerve cells of the brain are analogous, respectively, to water, water molecules, and the atoms of which water molecules are composed. Liquidity is a collective, macroscopic property of water molecules at room temperature. The elements of water — hydrogen and oxygen — bear no resemblance to water. As with liquidity, the mind is a manifestation of matter at high levels of complexity. The foregoing description is consistent with materialism and the identity theory of mind/body (also called physicalism) — a naturalistic theory. According to naturalism, nature consists of all that exists — nothing lies above or beyond it.

Naturalism is the basis of science. Its antithesis is supernaturalism, according to which there are quasi- entities outside the universe (natural world) that at least occasionally affect courses of events. Alleged supernatural beings and forces are, by definition, inherently mysterious — probably even inherently incomprehensible, since beings and forces are explicitly definable only in naturalistic terms. Medical supernaturalists portray the mind either as a reflection of a “vital force” or as a function of a “cosmic consciousness.” Although scientists have not yet worked out a definitive theory of mind, impenetrable or unknown forces or substances will not figure in any real understanding of the nature of thinking.

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A front-page headline in the June 13, 1994, issue of The New York Times read: “As Life’s Questions Get Harder, Magic Casts a Wider Spell.” The crux of the article is that “illusion and delusion in art and commerce are wrapped around daily life like an impossibly knotted necklace.” Television and cinema abound with affirmative talk of supernatural “entities” (e.g., angels), “places” (e.g., heaven), and miracles. Magic–any art that purports to sway or predict courses of events supernaturally–comes in countless forms. Many are socially acceptable. Indeed, in most American circles, at least a veneer of marginal deference for the “white magic” of major religions is de rigueur. The April 4, 1994, issue of U.S. News & World Report presented the findings of a recent poll on religious beliefs.

According to the article, aptly titled “Spiritual America,” about 95 percent of Americans affirm belief in God or a “universal spirit” and only 9 percent deny having a religious affiliation. Do religious beliefs predispose believers to supernaturalistic health methods?

Ancient Wisdom?
During prime time on July 5, 1994, NBC broadcast “Cured! Secrets of Alternative Healing,” a misbegotten special for which I had been interviewed on camera in September 1993. This was a tedious collection of mini-docudramas tending to canonize vitalistic “medicine.” The “skits” included “Samuel Hahnemann” (founder of homeopathy), “Witchcraft” (“the cult of the wise woman”), “Franz Mezmer [sic]” (propounder of animal magnetism), and “Ancient Acupuncture.” Moderator Kenneth Harvey described herbal medicine, homeopathy, and hypnosis as “modern techniques based upon ancient wisdom.” He stated: “A lot of things we do to make ourselves feel better is based on natural healing wisdom going back centuries.” Host Olympia Dukakis concluded: ‘Tonight we have seen how five ordinary people reached back into the past to discover healing wisdom that eased their modem afflictions… All of these alternative treatments, founded upon timeless wisdom, are available right now in virtually every community in America… In the twenty-first century, the new medicine will combine all known healing techniques: conventional medicine, alternative medicine, and ancient wisdom.”

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At this point, Team Skateboard leads 5 to 3 and Shii Ann faces off with Brian. Her team tries to explain to her to grab hold of him and pull him in with her. It doesn’t happen and Brian grabs her arm and tosses her in like a weightless Ally McBeal (who I really miss, by the way).

On his return, Brian squares up against NYC policeman Ken and after a bit of a struggle, Ken outpowers him and tosses Brian in the water. Team Skateboard now leads 8 to 4 and it doesn’t look so good for Team Church Social.

Ken stands guard in the attack zone and allows Penny through. Good strategy. Keep the strongest guy there to block everyone from getting through. Unfortunately for them, this one good idea burns out Team Skateboard’s one good brain cell. Helen tries to get through Ken, but he wasn’t in the attack zone when he first made contact so he disqualified himself from the game. We see Robb flip off Jeff Probst for insisting that his team follow the rules (and I wonder if Robb is a Democrat from New Jersey).

This changes the score from 8 – 4 to 7 – 5. Robb steps up. Clay hurries through the attack zone and is met with Robb 2-3 feet outside of the zone who grabs Clay by the neck and tosses him off screaming.

(This is what we saw in the previews.) Robb very quickly stretches one foot forward so it’s in the attack zone and argues with Jeff, pointing to his foot. Jeff clarifies, “Robb you were not in the attack zone when you grabbed Clay by the throat.”

Robb throws a little fit and another basket leaves Team Skateboard into the other boat. The score is now tied 6 – 6 and the two biggest guys from Team Skateboard have disqualified themselves from the game. Robb continues to throw a fit as he swims back, “Bunch of little whiney babies.”

Keeping up with daily demand for clean towels is a challenge for most clubs offering complimentary service. Hinchcliff has found placing a standing order with the distributor eases the pressure to remember to call for towels when supplies run low. Other managers say a count is taken on the average of every two weeks, and towels are ordered as needed.

Lappin of Rochester Athletic Club stations attendants in his locker rooms to collect towels from crowded bins and keep the area tidy. The attendants in the club’s children’s locker room also serve as a deterrent to pranksters thinking of stuffing towels in inappropriate places, particularly in toilets, Lappin says.

Hassle-free accessibility to the towels is a key component to providing a member service. Clubs that do not like the idea of a checkout desk can place towels on shelving in locker rooms and near workout areas. Towels should always be folded neatly, and Lappin cautions that anything other than 100 percent availability of towels for all members could turn good intentions into an unexpected hassle.

Thinking of providing complimentary towels?

Other advice from owners and managers that offer a complimentary towel service includes:

* Carefully analyze the cost of labor, equipment and towel replacement. Does it fit your business plan?

* Determine what quality of towels you want to provide, keeping in mind the nicer the towel, the more likely it is to “walk away.” A club logo on a towel will increase the number of losses, too.

* To help the turnover rate, consider methods to salvage the more soiled towels, like longer soaking time before washing.

And finally, Stacey McCarthy reminds fellow club managers that above all, providing towels is a service. “Budget in the expense and try not to diminish the service in any way by nagging members or being nit-picky about tracking each towel.”

While trying to develop a dried bread product upon which his clients could exercise their teeth without breaking them, Kellogg hit upon the idea of a wheat flake. By 1899 the flakes had evolved into a cereal-based company that soon had many competitors. One was Charles W. Post, a former Kellogg patient, who ground up wheat and barley loaves, called his new product “grape nuts,” and marketed it as a cure for appendicitis, malaria, consumption (tuberculosis), and loose teeth. Their enterprises were the roots of two of today’s giant cereal producers: the Kellogg Company and the Post Division of General Foods (now part of Philip Morris).

Bernarr Macfadden (1868-1955) was the first faddist to use mass-media techniques to amass a fortune. He taught that medical care (which he steadfastly avoided) should be rejected in favor of “natural” methods.

D.C. Jarvis, M.D., (1881-1966) wrote that body alkalinity was the principal threat to American health and that honey and apple cider were the antidotes. False claims in his book — which is still widely sold — were the basis for an FDA seizure of a product called Honegar.

Adolphus Hohensee (1901-1967) began his training in nutrition with a job as a soda jerk. After dabbling in real estate (with time in jail for mail fraud) and the field of transportation (during which time he was arrested for passing bad checks), Hohensee resumed his education. In 1943, he acquired an honorary degree of Doctor of Medicine from a nonaccredited school and followed this with Doctor of Naturopathy degrees from two schools that he did not attend. In 1946, he acquired a chiropractic license in the state of Nevada.

A master showman, Hohensee could lecture for hours about the terrible American diet that would stagnate the blood, corrode blood vessels, erode the kidneys and clog the intestines. He said that most people had intestinal worms, which, fortunately, could be cured by his special cleansing. He promised a long life to those who consumed his wonder products. Repeated prosecution by the FDA made him more cautious about selling his products during lectures, but his promotion of the gamut of food myths sent his audiences flocking to nearby health-food stores whose shelves just happened to be well-stocked with his product line.

In 1955, alert reporters caught Hohensee eating a meal of forbidden foods after one of his lectures. In 1962 he began serving an 18-month prison term for selling honey with false claims. But neither of these setbacks dampened his enthusiasm or that of his loyal followers.

Lelord Kordel (1904- ), author of about 20 books, recommended high-protein foods, lecithin (“the miracle nutrient”), and high-dosage vitamin and mineral supplements for everyone. Court records state that he began producing and marketing supplements in 1941, operating under various trade names. In 1946 he was convicted of misbranding and fined $4,000. One product in the case was Gotu Kola, an herbal tablet said to restore youth and “produce erect posture, sharp eyes, velvety skin, limbs of splendid proportions, deep chests, firm bodies, gracefully curved hips, flat abdomens” and even “pleasing laughter.” Thirteen other products were falsely claimed to be effective against various conditions including heart disease, liver troubles, tuberculosis, bone infections and impotence.

Kordel had a brush with the FTC in 1957 and two more with the FDA in 1961. In 1963, when he was president of Detroit Vital Foods, Inc., products shipped by the company were found to be misbranded because they were accompanied by Kordel publications which falsely claimed that nutritional products could treat practically all diseases. After the appeals process ended in 1971, Kordel was fined $10,000 and served one year in prison. Recent catalogs from Vital Foods, Inc., describe him as “America’s leading vitamin and diet expert” and claim that he has never been ill.

During the 1950s and early 1960s government agencies carried out more than 200 successful actions against misbranding. Several prominent faddists were sentenced to prison, and the courts ruled that any false message given in the context of a sale could be considered part of a product’s labeling. The budding health-food industry soon reorganized to get around the law. Most supplement manufacturers stopped labeling their products as effective against specific diseases. Industry emphasis shifted somewhat from “miracle” drugs to “nutrition insurance,” an approach that tends to attract little regulatory attention. “Specialization” developed whereby most publicists have no direct financial tie to the sale of specific products. This enables their claims to be protected by the doctrines of freedom of speech and freedom of the press.

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